Definitions+of+Culture

=Definitions of Culture as Described by the Literature=

Culture is a construct utilized in many academic disciplines including anthropology, business, education, sociology, and psychology. As such, there is no concise, unified definition. However, there are many overlapping and complementary descriptions and definitions to be found. Several are outlined here. Please note this is a working draft and includes notes to aid the developmental thought process that will be utilized in a formal, written document.

Tylor, E.B. (1871). Primitive culture. New York, NY: G.P. Putnam's Sons.

 * “...that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society" (p. 1).

Cole, M. (1996) //Cultural psychology: A once and future discipline//. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

 * "...the medium within which we exist (p. 8)
 * Distinctive ways of life
 * Language, religion, ways of life, customs
 * "Different cultural circumstances provide different stimuli to their members, who, in consequence, learn different kinds of responses. The sum total of that learned behavior in a particular time and place serves as the working definition of culture" (p. 32)

===Faiola, A. & MacDorman, K.F. (2008). The influence of holistic and analytic cognitive styles on online information design: Toward a communication theory of cultural cognitive design. //Information, Communication & Society, 11//(3), 348–374. doi: 10.1080/13691180802025418===
 * Cole's (1996) definition of culture (p. 352)
 * "Hence, culture is primarily developed cognitively, where behavioral diversity is the product of cultural traits, which are deeply embedded in cognitive processes. Moreover, human experiences are molded in the matrix of social values, ethical concerns and formative learning, and these experiences constitute the central framework of the mind" (p. 352)
 * "Vygotsky (1978 [1930/1935], 1989 [1934]) treats learning as being shared within the context of social interaction and discourse. Cultural traditions and social practices, he argues, produce a profound difference in the way people think, feel and interact, making an individual’s psychology a product of culture. He stated that directed thought is social and, as it develops, is ‘increasingly influenced by the laws of experience and of logic proper’ (1979, p. 16). Differences in the way people think are often attributable to culture (Shweder 1990). Vygotsky suggests that culture is the primary determinant of individual development. He also notes that our perception of reality is a product of sociocultural processes and that knowledge is socially mediated and thereby grounded in culture. Vygotsky’s contribution to psychology was invaluable in that he focused on the ‘process of individual–environment interaction by which development takes place’ (Valsiner 1988, p. 165)" (p. 353)

Ferraro, G. (2008). //Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective, 7th Edition//. Belmont, CA: Thomson Higher Education.

 * Many, varied definitions of culture
 * Kroeber and Kluckhohn's (1952) seminole work, including 160 different definitions
 * Tylor's (1871) definition
 * "More recently, culture has been defined as 'a mental map which guides us in our relations to our surroundings and to other people' (Downs, 1971, p. 35) and perhaps most succinctly as 'the way of life of a people' (Hatch, 1985; p. 178)" (p. 27 -28).
 * "Adding to the already sizable number of definitions, we will define the concept of culture as 'everything that people have, think, and do as members of a society.' This definition can be instructive because the three verbs (have, think, and do) correspond to the three major components of culture. That is, everything that people have refers to material possessions; everything that people think refers to the things they carry around in their heads, such as ideas, values, and attitudes; and everything that people do refers to behavior patterns. Thus, all cultures are composed of material objects; ideas, values, and attitudes; and patterned ways of behaving" (p. 28)

Haviland, W.A., Walrath, D., Prins, H.E.L., & McBride, B. (2010). //Evolution and prehistory: The human challenge//. Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning.

 * Culture defined as "...a society’s shared and socially transmitted ideas, values, and perceptions, which are used to make sense of experience and which generate behavior and are reflected in that behavior. These standards are socially learned, rather than acquired through biological inheritance" (p. 11).
 * Cultural definition without value judgement about any particular cultural identity

Mulcahy, K.V. (2006), Cultural policy: Definitions and theoretical approaches. //The Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society//, 35(4), 319 – 330. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

 * Culture is a difficult word because there is no consensus on definition and the definition includes the combination of several other concepts.
 * Culture in the conception of cultivation
 * Customs, achievements, viewpoints of a society or group
 * Attitudes and behaviors that characterize functioning
 * Intellectual and artistic activity and works derived thereby

===Storck, T. (2009). Culture and the embodiment of cultural ideals as preliminary to a philosophy of culture. //Forum Philosophicum: International Journal for Philosophy, 14//(1), 69-86. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.===
 * Tylor’s (1871) definition
 * Culture as related to cultivation, and hence, the idea of a system of “bringing men to maturity and organizing how we express our humanity, especially in association with others,” (p. 71).
 * Cultural definition without value judgment about any particular cultural identity
 * Dawson’s definition – adjustment of the natural man to his natural surroundings and his economic needs
 * Ideas about the mysteries of God (or lack thereof) at heart of all cultures

=== Taras, V., Rowney, J., & Steel, P. (2009). Half a century of measuring culture: Review of approaches, challenges, and limitations based on the analysis of 121 instruments for quantifying culture. //Journal of International Management//, 15(4), 357-373. doi:10.1016/j.intman.2008.08.005 ===
 * Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952) and 164 potential definitions for culture
 * Cultural synonyms developed by Koltko-Rivera (2004) – as value orientations, basic beliefs, schemas, philosophy of life, world outlook
 * Complex, multi-level construct including stable basic beliefs or values, that are shared by a group, formed over a period of time