Culture+and+Elearning+Systems

=Annotated Bibliography of Resources for This Topic: Culture and E-Learning Systems=

Rovai, A.P., Ponton, M.K., & Baker, J.D. (2008). Chapter 3: Culture. In //Distance Learning in Higher Education//, (pp. 29 – 45). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
The authors – Rovai, Ponton and Baker – are faculty at Regent University and have extensive and varied expertise in the field of distance education. The text is divided into 11 chapters, and concludes with a glossary of terms and the following Appendices: a) example extract from a strategic plan, b) analytic participation rubric, and c) evidence of quality distance learning programs. The focus of the third chapter is on the significance of culture in elearning environments. The proliferation of Internet technologies along with economic globalization potentially brings higher education institutions into direct contact with a more diverse student population. Dominant culture institutions (along with dominant culture instructors) must take into account the need for practices which are accessible and egalitarian with regard to students from diverse cultures. The authors describe situational and dispositional challenges to success for minority students. Situational challenges include the digital divide, the personal costs of higher education participation, computer-mediated communication, and racism. Dispositional challenges include the cognitive style of the learner him/herself as either field dependent or independent, communication style preferences (high context and low context), and collectivist culture preferences. Some cultures tend to emphasize a field dependent cognitive style, indicating that individuals prefer to connect new information to pre-existing knowledge in collaborative settings. Likewise, some cultures utilize high context communication to a greater degree, including body language, tone and other non-verbal cues to enhance the message. In the depersonalized online environment, this communication style may be disadvantaged. Finally, some cultures value collectivism, which places the group above the self and high value on relationships. In order to provide fair and just educational opportunities to all students, the authors recommend a number of strategies at all levels of the elearning system: (a) institutional strategies that foster a commitment to and awareness of diversity among faculty and leadership, (b) course design strategies that include varied types of media and student engagement activities, and (c) curriculum and instruction strategies that include inclusive content and professional development about multicultural teaching techniques. Specific, detailed descriptions of strategies appropriate for all three areas are listed.

=== Shapiro, J.J., & Hughes, S.K. (2010). Chapter 3: The challenges of culture and community in online academic environments. In K.E. Rudenstam and J. Schoenholtz-Read (Eds.), //Handbook of Online Learning, 2nd Edition¸//(pp. 57 – 90). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. ===

A significant portion of human interaction and interpersonal communication relies on non-verbal aspects of the interaction, including the physical appearance, gestures, stance, tone of voice, facial expression, rank and gender. Communicating in the absence of these cues both limits the richness of the communication and creates greater risk for miscommunication and negative interaction consequences. At this time, CMC technologies cannot account for all aspects of face-to-face communication. Furthermore, those who have grown up in the presence of such technologies may not rely on the same communication cues as those who learned to communicate in the absence of CMC. The authors consider the culture and community both at the course level (micro) and the institutional level (macro). This is a justification for describing learning environments, where the context of the course within the larger framework of the sponsoring institution is the focus. Hirschheim and Klein (1998) identified the neohumanist paradigm for the development of information systems, which emphasizes democratic ideology including mutual understanding, mindful interaction, unforced consensus, the recognition of political and social power structures, and active identification of repression and hegemony. This paradigm is also complementary to a learner-centered approach. For any individual, cultural values and preferences are aligned along a continuum of extremes, including some that are mutually exclusive or even antagonistic. The challenge for online community administrators or facilitators is to strike the successful balance between individualism and democratic interaction and the need for structure and limits. A criticism of existing research about online communities is that online communities are treated as isolated social entities, neglecting the fact that users also have complex identities and lives aside from cyberspace. As technology tools become more familiar, they become more transparent; the user focuses more on the goals of use than the interface itself. Within this frame, users may participate in online communities either as a function of personal liberation or as a function of synonymity. The authors describe the use of email for a special-interest message to a captive audience, and the resulting reaction of the members of the community is used as an example of how cultural differences are evident in the face of controversy. Some persons experience unwanted communication differently than others, feel varying levels of personal control, and this is complicated by features of public exposure as might be present in an online discussion environment. Furthermore, even when rules and norms are in written form, these cannot take replace the subtle understandings about the relevant group norms and cultural understandings of the members. The authors describe "online communicative competence" as the ability to participate in online communities, including interpersonal and technical competency. The neohumanist educator is encouraged to foster online communicative competency as part of the process of creating more just learning environments.

Ess, C. (2002). Cultures in collision: Philosophical lessons from computer-mediated communication. //Metaphilosophy, 33//(2), 229 – 253. doi: 10.1111/1467-9973.00226
The author opens with an analogy comparing the work of physicists to the work of communication researchers. Just as physicist use the collision of many larger, observable particles to understand the workings of the smaller particles that underlie the activity, communication researchers can use the many interactions among peoples of diverse cultures in computer mediated settings, likened to communication collisions, to understand the role that culture plays in communication. Initially, proponents of the Internet touted it as a space of gender-free, color-blind possibility. In fact, empirical evidence is supporting the predominance of aggressive, white-male communication patterns. Furthermore, developing societies still have disparate access to Internet technologies and represent a very small percentage of the online population. Two competing philosophical perspectives are presenting, and then challenged based upon what is observed empirically. Technological instrumentalism posits that technology is value-neutral and merely an instrument to further pre-existing values and beliefs. Technological determinism posits that the individualistic and decentralized nature of technologies like the Internet inherently promote Western democratic paradigms of being. In one study comparing collaborate work software designed in Japan with a Western equivalent, the researcher found that Japanese users preferred emphasis on the high context/low content style of interaction, and did not simply conform to a Western style system. In other words, the study “demonstrate that CMC technologies both embed specific cultural values and communicative preferences (contra technological //instrumentalism//), and (contra technological //determinism//) that these technologies do //not// simply reshape their users to conform with those embedded values and preferences. Rather, diverse peoples and cultures //are// capable of (re)designing systems more in keeping with their own cultural values and communicative preferences” (Ess, 2002, p. 234). In another example study, the author discusses the issue of anonymity in online business meeting systems. In the West, anonymity is viewed as a way to gain honest and true input from all parties, and provides an egalitarian environment. In Indonesia, anonymity has a negative connotation and threatens face, or a person’s perception of integrity. In such cultural settings, an anonymity feature would be ill-received. In other words, technology usage is most often shaped by the culture of the designers. The issue of technological determinism - the democratizing force of technology in non-democratic societies - is also challenged; suggesting that social context of use of the technology is the deciding factor, not the inherent values of the technology itself. Therefore, both technological instrumentalism and technological determinism are rejected. The article closes with a thorough discussion of the Western Cartesian understanding of self - the notion that the mind and the body are separate – and a caution to avoid such assumptions in communicating with others in computer-mediated environments.

=== **Ess, C., & Sudweeks, F. (2006). Culture and computer-mediated communication: Toward new understandings. //Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication,// //11//(1)//,// 179 – 191. doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00009.x** ===

Charles Ess is a Professor of Philosophy and Religion and Interdisciplinary Studies at Drury University in Missouri and a Professor of Applied Ethics at Norwegian University for Scient and Technology. Fay Sudweeks is a Senior Lecturer in Information Systems at Murdoch University, Australia. The article provides a critique of some of the frameworks for cultural analysis presented in Chapter 3 of the Rovai, Ponton and Baker texts with regard to Hall’s theory of high- and low-context cultures with regard to communication and Hofstede’s model of national culture. This article also serves as an introductory piece for several other related articles that appear in the same journal issue. On the whole, subsequent research suggests that Hall’s dichotomy is overly simplistic as to be applied across all aspects of cultural communication research, and Hofstede’s model may be too limited in terms of defining culture along national lines by assuming synonymy. While both Hall and Hofstede provide frameworks that do work for certain aspects of CMC research, neither accounts for the condition of Internet technology adoption among those who are either rebelling against a cultural norm, or wish to adopt one representative of another valued culture or idealized persona. Furthermore, the authors point out, as globalization proliferates, the applicability of these theoretical approaches, which rely on fixed cultural orientations, may become even more diminished. Nevertheless, some researchers have used Hall and Hofstede’s theories when applied to //specific// aspects of Internet //usage// that appear salient and may benefit international advertisers and web developers. The authors also provide an overview of other researchers who’ve created alternative theories or extended the work of Hall and Hofstede that may be more relevant and applicable. As a personal note, none of the work is specific to the field of education, and comes out of research done by industry for the purpose of creating effective web design for international consumers. Nevertheless, the theoretical frameworks presented may have applicability to aspects of course design as it pertains to presentation of content online.

Grasmuck, S., Martin, J., & Zhao, S. (2009). Ethno-racial identity displays on Facebook. //Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication//, //15//(1), 158-188. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01498.x
In the past, researchers have focused on anonymous online communities in research about race and self-representation online. The assertion that life online is inherently raceless is itself an example of dominant culture hegemony. White Americans comprise the majority of the online population, and therefore, control most of the conversation and discourse. It is inherently understood that issues of race are to be avoided in most social settings – an exercise of dominant culture colorblindness – and this sort of marginalization continues online. This study examined self-representation in a nonymous (not anonymous) setting – Facebook – to explore racial representations and identity. Facebook liaisons and interactions are often cybernetic expressions of pre-existing face-to-face liaisons, and the researchers felt this was a significant difference, compared with older research based on anonymous text-based systems. The researchers also note that while Facebook enables participants to list various aspects of self-identity, including imagery, sex and sexual preference, beliefs and affinities, it does not provide an option to explicitly designate racial identity. This study examined the Facebook identities of 83 students at a Northeastern university; 63 students from one of four immigrant minority groups, and 20 White students randomly selected from the student body. Students varied widely in socioeconomic status. Only 63 students had analyzable Facebook identities. Facebook analysis was supplemented with personal interviews. African-American, Latino, and East Indian student participants’ Facebook identities demonstrated a greater degree of racial identity through postings and preferences than those of White or Vietnamese participants. Furthermore, White and Vietnamese students rarely indicated group identification or ethno-racial themes. The researchers posited that the positive and dramatic displays of identity from some minority groups are consistent with stage-of-life (college age) development of identity in a racist society. The researchers further asserted that findings on Facebook mirrored the state of ethno-racial student organizations, which were active and engaged on the university campus.

===Jones, S., Johnson-Yale, C., Millermaier, S., & Pérez, F. S. (2009). U.S. College students’ Internet use: Race, gender and digital divides. //Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication//, 14(2), 244-264. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01439.x=== A qualitative survey of undergraduates from 29 two- and four-year colleges and universities in the continental U.S. (N = 7,421) revealed differences in Internet use by gender and among race groups as identified by the categories listed in the survey. As supported by the literature, females were more likely to use the Internet for educational and communicative purposes than males. Furthermore, males engaged more frequently in the leisure and entertainment aspects of Internet use. Females were also less likely to perceive the Internet positively or feel a strong sense of self-efficacy with regard to use. When examined by race, differences are noted along several different aspects of use. Blacks and Hispanics were more likely to have used the Internet for the first time outside the home than Whites. This finding may have been supported by an earlier study that confirmed that, even when controlled for income, White students were more likely to own a computer than Blacks or Hispanics. All races surveyed indicated valuing the Internet for educational purposes, but Hispanics were less likely than other groups to use it for that purpose. The authors close by pondering what other factors, beyond physical access or financial, contribute or mitigate against Internet use among minority groups. “Differential use of and attitudes toward the Internet are particularly salient as institutions of higher learning increasingly incorporate Web-based tools into classroom instruction and university life” (p. 261).

===Kim, H., Coyle, J. R., & Gould, S. J. (2009). Collectivist and individualist influences on Website design in South Korea and the U.S.: A cross-cultural content analysis. //Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14//(3), 581-601. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01454.x=== There is a considerable quantity of research literature supporting the idea that Internet usage and preferences vary across cultures. This study is a content analysis comparing Website design for U.S. consumer populations with those created for South Korean audiences. The researchers chose to compare these two ethnic groups based upon their positions with regard to Internet technology. The majority of broadband consumers on Earth are from the United States. Nevertheless, per capita, South Korea has the largest level of broadband consumption – accounting for over 6% of usage globally. The two societies can be contrasted in terms of orientation to individualistic (American) or collectivist (Asian) cultures. According to the researchers, American and Asian cultures also differ in terms of orientation to time; Americans are monochronic (one thing at a time) whereas South Koreans tend polychronic (multitasked approach). Furthermore, these two societies can be contrasted according to Hall’s classical high-context/low-context communication construct. The researchers conducted a content-analysis of 200 randomly selected commercial websites, sponsored by either American Fortune 500 companies (N=99) or 406 of the largest South Korean companies (N = 101). Website content was rated according to frequency of various visual, hyperlink and navigational features. Analysis revealed significant differences in Website design according to national preferences; South Korean Websites were more likely to feature rollover navigation bars, pop-ups, splash pages, clickable images, animated images, and streaming video. These findings are consistent with assertions about preferences for multi-tasking, information ambiguity, and visual context. (As a personal note, I have noticed that some major online advertising campaigns now feature country-of-origin selections as part of the welcome screen).

Kinuthia, W. (2009). Reflecting on embedding socio-cultural issues into instructional design. //Multicultural Education & Technology Journal//, //3//(4), 266-278. doi:10.1108/17504970911004273
This qualitative case study examined the experiences of instructional design students in an online course to examine cultural awareness and cultural competency within the field of instructional design practice. The author (and course instructor) defines culture according to concepts developed by Collis (1999) to include “values, ethics, rules and knowledge systems” that are used to accomplish group goals; and Dei (2000) “people’s understanding of themselves, their world, and influences on education.” The field of instructional design has largely given only cursory attention to issues of culture in educational systems design and practice; culturally relevant educational practices and instructional design are rarely studied as they relate to one another. Furthermore, instructional designers, themselves beings within cultural contexts, are challenged to operate beyond personal influences. Very recently, a handful preliminary ISD models have been developed, either as adaptations of established models or as new paradigms for practice. Nevertheless, the gap is still wide. Ten students in the elective ISD course focused on a number of instructional design topics and issues, through a lens of African studies. Data was collected via course discussions, course essays and projects. In general, students reported an increased awareness of the significance of culture and culturally relevant practice within the context of their individual roles as instructional designers. Furthermore, students reported an appreciation for the opportunity to engage in online learning as part of the context in which content was studied. The author pointed out that the course timeline itself was a study limitation, given that only a certain number of topics and readings could be addressed, which only bring awareness to the depth and breadth of the relevant issues.

**Liu, Z., Liu, S., Lee, S-h., Magjuka, R. J. (2010). Cultural differences in online learning: International student perceptions. //Educational Technology & Society, 13// (3), 177-188.**
This article examines an online MBA program through a large Midwestern institution; students in the program were from various countries. One-on-one interviews and focus groups were conducted to find out the positive and negative perspectives of online courses through a U.S. based institution. It is evident from those who participated in this study that Eastern culture instruction is more instructor and exam based. The instructor provides information to students in a lecture format and students then must memorize the information for exams. The Western style is more collaborative between the instructor and student and is learner-centered. Students, whose native language is not English, felt they needed more time to review information, however, the assistance of video and audio helped them to move through the information more timely manner. A better understanding of the differences in Western and Eastern cultures is detailed in this article.

Paliktzoglou, V., & Suhonen, J. (2011). Part-time online PhD reflection: Train of thoughts. //Procedia Computer Science, 3//, 149-154. doi:10.1016/j.procs.2010.12.026
This is a qualitative essay describing one student’s experiences as a part-time Ph.D. student in an online doctoral program (International Multidisciplinary PhD Studies in Educational Technology) at the University of Eastern Finland. The program was designed to provide an opportunity for working adults to complete a Ph.D. in either education or computer science. Participants complete core courses and a comprehensive research component including peer-reviewed journal publication, dissertation, and reviewed grant application. Program technologies included the Moodle LMS, Adobe Connect Pro, and Skype, suggesting a blend of synchronous video-based and asynchronous text-based program components. Students must also travel to Finland for a face-to-face event once during the program. The student identifies time management and balance of non-student activity as initial challenges, along with strategies used to accomplish balance while making academic progress. Furthermore, graduate study involves sacrifice of family time, personal hobbies and social entertainments. The student also identifies the transition from knowledge-receiving to knowledge-production as a challenge. Students in such an environment must also possess strong skills for self-motivation, self-monitoring, and independent work ethic. Although the student identifies several potential challenges from the literature, including cultural barriers, language barriers, and physical isolation from immediate and structured interaction with academic advisors or supervisors, he relates gratitude that he had not experienced such barriers. The student also identifies the significance of a support network and high quality relationship and interaction with the advisor. Active participation in face-to-face and online opportunities to present research and academic work was also motivating to continue in the program. Relationships with fellow students were also vital.

===Taylor, M., Jowi, D., Schreier, H., & Bertelsen, D. (2011). Students’ perceptions of e-mail interaction during student-professor advising sessions: The pursuit of interpersonal goals. //Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 16//(2), 307-330. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2011.01541.x===

This study examined American undergraduate college student preferences for the use of email over face-to-face communication with academic advisors for the purpose of mentoring and academic progress. The authors identified three categories of interpersonal goal achievement: instrumental, relational, and self-presentational. Instrumental goals were described as those that relate to student self-advancement, including day-to-day communication tasks such as getting a school schedule, registering for the right classes, and scheduling advisor appointments. Relational goals were described as those that relate to the interpersonal relationship between the student and the advisor in terms of knowing one another in a social context. Self-presentational goals were described as those that relate to how one is perceived by others, or simply stated, one’s public persona. A convenience sample of 300 undergraduate students was asked to complete a questionnaire designed to measure the goal constructs previously describe relative to email and face-to-face communication preferences. Results indicated that students do not prefer email to face-to-face communication for all three types of interpersonal goals; further, subtle, but statistically significant differences in preference were identified by gender and ethnicity. In short, students did not view email as equivalent, or a substitute, but preferred the option of making face-to-face contact with advisors at times.

===Vatrapu, R. (2008). Cultural consideration in computer supported collaborative learning. //Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning//, //3//(2), 159 - 201. Retrieved from http://www.itu.dk/people/rkva/docs/2008-RPTEL-Culture-CSCL.pdf===

The author conducts empirical research to test cultural influences of socio-technical affordances and technological subjectivity within the context of computer supported collaborative learning environments. In short, this study examined the extent to which culture influenced participants’ (a) appropriation of affordances, (b) perception of self and fellow participants with regard to interaction, and (c) resulting measures of academic performance, all within the context of a collaborative learning environment. Each of the theoretical constructs presented in this study is defined and described. Affordance is defined as “action-taking possibilities” and “meaning-making opportunities” in the system (p. 158). In short, affordance is the space or opportunity for an individual within a system to act freely. Definitions of culture are taken from the extant literature (Hofstede, Vygotsky, and Bartlett) and are critiqued insofar as they are so broad as to defy specific study and measure. The definition used for this study is linked to affordance, in terms of how ability to act and make meaning are relative to collective identity groups, and vary among groups. Technological intersubjectivity is defined as the whole range of communicative and action interactions among individuals and machines. The central assertion is that individuals perceive the technological system and others within the system differently, as mediated by culture, and respond or take action in varying ways, as mitigated by culture. The research design was a pre-test/post-test comparison of scores on seven instruments developed through prior research, taken together with participant essays and qualitative interview data. A total of 60 graduate students from the University of Hawaii at Manoa participated in the study. Students were divided into dyads, according to one of cultural pairings: (a) Chinese-Chinese, (b) Anglo-American-Chinese, and (c) Anglo-American-Anglo-American. Cultural groupings were further sorted by gender pairings for each cultural pairing: (a) male-male, (b) male-female, and (c) female-female, to mitigate for gender differences within cultural contexts. Participants were asked to complete several questionnaires, then participate in a computer-software training session utilizing technologies that afforded multiple interaction and resource pathways, then work in synchronous but physically separated pairs (mediated by computer technology) to complete a related learning task, followed by additional questionnaires and a follow-up interview. Results indicated that differences between the two cultural groups were identified in terms of how the technological resources were used and in terms of interaction and communication; however, no differences in learning outcomes were realized. Gender differences were also found to be insignificant in terms of learning outcomes. In other words, although participants used different pathways to accomplish learning objectives, no significant differences in outcomes were observed. The researcher concludes by recommending that learning environments afford multiple pathways and modes for interaction and action, to avoid potential hindrances of monocultural environmental designs.

Vuckovic, A. (2008). Inter-cultural communication: a foundation of communicative action. //Multicultural Education & Technology Journal//, 2(1), 47-59. doi:10.1108/17504970810867151
The author presents a conceptual model for inter-cultural communication, as a framework for inter-cultural communication competence. Five factors of inter-cultural communication are presented, and discussed according to the extant literature: (a) culture, (b) perceptions, (c) roles and identities, (d) communication style and (e) personality. All of these factors come into play in any inter-cultural exchange. The communication behaviors of any individual person are further influenced by habits of action, the intentions behind the message, and the emotional state of the individual at the time of the exchange. The author asserts that through self reflection, individuals can become self and other aware, in order to become more competent inter-cultural communicators. “Self reflection…is not solely restricted to introspective activities. It also encompasses seeking for and integration of information that are useful to provide an accurate picture of the self” (p. 56). Finally, while quantitative instruments designed to assess communication concepts are inherently biased and limited, such can serve as a companion to self-reflection in determining an objective self-evaluation of communication competencies.